Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, the Habsburg envoy at the court of Süleyman the Magnificent, was one of the writers who did most to make the sixteenth-century Ottoman world known to Europe. In the spring of 1555 he set out from Istanbul to visit the sultan in his winter quarters at Amasya, reached the city on 7 April, and for two months negotiated with Süleyman's council. He described this journey in a Latin letter to his friend Nicolas Michault. When the letter was published, Amasya's name stood in its title: Itinera Constantinopolitanum et Amasianum, that is, the journeys to Constantinople and Amasya. The first edition of the book appeared at Antwerp in 1581.

Busbecq's letters are not read merely as a diplomat's report. Their author was a humanist who chased after ancient coins, inscriptions, plants, animals and manuscripts. He had the emperor's account of his own deeds copied from the wall of the Temple of Augustus in Ankara, he is remembered among those who opened the way for tulip and lilac bulbs to reach the gardens of Europe, and he sent close to two hundred and forty Greek books from Istanbul to the imperial library in Vienna. He looks at Amasya with the same curiosity: its houses, its roofs, its castle, the silent crowd in the sultan's audience hall, and the shadow of Şehzade Mustafa, killed a year and a half before.

A Fleming Born at Comines

Busbecq was born in 1522 at Comines, near Lille on today's Franco-Belgian border. His father was George Ghiselin, lord of the manor of Bousbecque and a member of an old Flemish noble family. His mother, Catharina Hespiel, was very probably one of the servants at the château and was unmarried. Busbecq was therefore born illegitimate; but his father made no distinction between him and his lawful sons, brought him up in his château and saw to it that he received a good education. In Turkish his name usually appears as Busbecq, and in the TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi in its Flemish form, Busbeke.

At thirteen he entered the University of Louvain, where Erasmus had once taught, and studied there for five years. In the year he finished his studies a patent of the Emperor Charles V removed the stain from his birth and admitted him as a noble member of the Busbecq family. The date of this legitimation differs in the sources: the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie gives April 1540, while the document published by Forster and Daniell is dated 24 November 1540. After Louvain, following the custom of the age, he made the round of Europe's great universities; he studied at Paris, Bologna and Padua and stayed a long time in Venice. At Padua he became a pupil of Baptista Egnatius, the friend of Erasmus. His contemporary Lodovico Guicciardini writes that besides his native Flemish he spoke Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, German and a Slavonic language with equal ease.

From England to Vienna

Busbecq entered public life in 1554. King Ferdinand I sent Don Pedro Lasso de Castilla to London to represent him at the wedding of his nephew Philip, heir to the Spanish throne, and Queen Mary Tudor of England; Busbecq was a member of this mission and was present at the ceremony in Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554. The mission left England in October. While Busbecq was still staying with his aunt in Lille, on 3 November 1554, an urgent summons reached him from Ferdinand: he was to go to Istanbul as ambassador.

It was a post nobody wanted. The previous envoy, Giovanni Maria Malvezzi, had been thrown into a dungeon at Rumelihisarı when Ferdinand occupied Transylvania, an Ottoman dependency, in 1551; he came out sick two years later, set off to return to Istanbul, and broke down at Komárom. Busbecq lost no time. He called at Bousbecque to see his father one last time, met his former chief Lasso in Brussels and reached Vienna on 18 November. He had only a few days to gather the necessary information on Turkish affairs at court and from the ailing Malvezzi; according to the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie he set out through Hungary on 23 November. With him were his Flemish servants and the physician from Kortrijk, Willem Quacquelben, of whom he would grow very fond.

On the Road to Istanbul

Busbecq entered Ottoman territory at Esztergom (Gran) and crossed the Balkans from end to end by way of Buda, Belgrade, Niš, Sofia and Plovdiv (Filibe). On the last stages from Edirne to Istanbul, he writes, though it was midwinter he was presented with nosegays of narcissus, hyacinth and the flower the Turks called "tulipan". He adds that the tulip has little or no scent and that its merit lies in the variety and beauty of its colours, and that the Turks, though sparing in other matters, did not hesitate to pay several aspers for a fine flower.

He reached Istanbul on 20 January 1555 and found there Ferdinand's two envoys who had been sent before him, Antal Verancsics and Ferenc Zay. The sultan was in Anatolia with his army. Left in the city were only the governor of Istanbul, the eunuch İbrahim Pasha, and Rüstem Pasha, who had been dismissed after the death of Şehzade Mustafa. Bearing in mind his former influence and his chances of returning to the grand vizierate, the envoys called on Rüstem Pasha and gave him presents. Busbecq took up residence in the Elçi Hanı, the envoys' inn. In the same building lived another man who had been waiting since 1553 with the embassy of Verancsics and Zay: the Bohemian Hans Dernschwam, who had set out at his own expense. The journey the two men were to make together as far as Amasya would be told separately, in the letters of the one and the diary of the other.

The Journey to Amasya

When the sultan heard that the envoy had arrived, he ordered the governor of Istanbul to send the embassy over to the Asian shore and on to Amasya. Busbecq and his companions crossed to Üsküdar on 9 March 1555. From here on Busbecq gives the names of the halting places one by one, and his reason is plain: many had travelled the road to Constantinople, but to the best of his knowledge no European before them had travelled the road to Amasya. They passed through Kartal, Gebze and İzmit. At Gebze he mentions ancient Libyssa, where Hannibal was said to be buried, the view over the gulf of İzmit and some cypresses of extraordinary size.

The most famous halt of the journey is Ankara. Here Busbecq saw the inscription in which Augustus set out his own deeds, carved on the marble walls of a ruined, roofless building, and had his men copy as much of it as was legible. He writes that the top lines were nearly complete, that gaps began in the middle, and that the lowest lines had been made illegible by blows of clubs and axes. The arrival in the West of this text, later known as the Monumentum Ancyranum, is remembered together with his name; the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie states that Busbecq discovered the inscription and that the text was published by Andreas Schott. Dernschwam, of the same embassy, had also entered the inscription in his diary, and the Neue Deutsche Biographie attributes the first copy to his diary. In Ankara Busbecq also watched how the watered mohair woven from goat hair was dyed and pressed, and recorded that Süleyman wore green mohair above all on state occasions.

At every halting place along the road it was his amusement to ask after old coins, inscriptions or rare plants. He writes that in Turkish cemeteries he came across ancient columns and marble blocks bearing Greek and Latin inscriptions, that coins of the later Roman emperors were plentiful in the villages, and that the Turks called them "giaour mangiri", the infidel's money, and used them as drachm weights. Among the coins he found, besides those of Samsun (Amisos), Sinop, Comana and Amasra, were some of Amasya, the city to which they were bound. A coppersmith angered him by telling him that a few days earlier he had melted down a whole pot of old coins, thinking them worthless, and made kettles of them; Busbecq adds that he took his revenge by telling the man he would have paid a hundred gold pieces for the coins had he kept them.

After Ankara they crossed the Kızılırmak. Busbecq recalls the old oracle that if Croesus, king of Lydia, crossed this river he would destroy a great kingdom; he tells how they chewed liquorice root on the bank and sucked its juice, and how they fished with the nets of his colleague Zay. At the village of Tekke, beyond Çorum, where the lodge of Elvan Çelebi stood, he heard from the dervishes stories of a hero whose name he writes as Chederle, identified with St George, who was believed to have rescued a maiden from a dragon and to have drunk from a river that gave immortality. The Elvan Çelebi entry of the TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi states that Busbecq and Dernschwam were guests at this lodge and recorded what they saw. The last halt was Bağlıca. On 7 April 1555, the thirtieth day after leaving Istanbul, they reached Amasya; as they drew near, a party of Turks came out to congratulate them and escorted them into the city.

Two Months in Amasya

The City Described

Busbecq introduces Amasya as the chief town of Cappadocia. He says that the governor of the province held his court there and kept the main body of his troops there, and he recalls that Strabo was born in the city. Then he adds an observation: ever since the time of Bayezid the place had seemed, in some mysterious fashion, to be associated with misfortune, and the miserable end of Mustafa had shown that this belief was not groundless. The sentence does not explain which events it has in mind; what comes first to mind is the struggle for the throne among the sons of Bayezid II who had governed Amasya.

He describes the look of the city with the image of a theatre. Amasya lies between two ranges of hills, the Iris (Yeşilırmak) flows right through its middle, and the houses on both banks rise up the slopes like the tiers of a theatre. As a result the river can be seen from every part of the city, and those who live on one bank are in full view of those on the other. The hills enclose the city so tightly that there is only one road by which carriages and beasts of burden can enter or leave. In the citadel on the hill above the city there is a permanent Turkish garrison; Busbecq writes that it is there to overawe the tribes of Asia or to hold the Persians in check, whose raids had at times reached as far as Amasya. On the same hill he sees traces of ancient monuments, possibly those of the kings of Cappadocia. These are very probably the structures known today as the Rock Tombs of the Kings, at the foot of Harşena Castle.

He finds no beauty in the houses or the streets. The houses are built of white clay, much as in Spain; the roofs are of the same material, flat and without gables. When rain or wind damages a roof, they use a fragment of an ancient column as a roller, pulling it backwards and forwards until the roof is smooth again. In summer the people sleep on these roofs in the open air. Rain does not fall often, but when it does, the mud dripping from the roofs ruins the clothes of passers-by in the street. Busbecq also notes that on a roof near their lodgings he saw a young sanjak governor eating his supper reclining on a couch in the manner of the ancients. Dernschwam's drawing of the roller stone used on the same roofs and Busbecq's column fragment are the same tool as it took shape under the pens of two observers.

On the night of their arrival a great fire broke out in the city, and the janissaries put it out in their own way, by pulling down the neighbouring houses. Busbecq says he cannot tell how the fire began, but asserts that the soldiers had their reasons for wanting fires, since under the pretext of putting them out they plundered both the burning houses and those of the neighbours, and that for this reason they sometimes started fires themselves. Dernschwam, for his part, records a great fire on 14 April; whether the two accounts describe the same event is not clear.

The Pashas and the Sultan's Presence

The sultan was not in the city when the envoys arrived. Busbecq and his companions first called on the grand vizier, Kara Ahmed Pasha, and the other pashas and began negotiations on the business Ferdinand had entrusted to them. Not wishing to appear prejudiced, the pashas raised little objection to the envoys' views and said that everything depended on the sultan's pleasure. According to the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, the sultan insisted on the surrender of Kassa (Košice) and Várad (Oradea), which Ferdinand had stipulated for himself in return for ceding Transylvania to Zápolya's widow; the same source attributes the coldness of the reception to the influence of the French envoys in Amasya.

After Süleyman's return the envoys were received in audience. Busbecq describes the sultan seated on a very low ottoman, not more than a foot from the ground, covered with costly rugs and cushions of exquisite workmanship, his bow and arrows beside him. His face is stern, but dignified. In keeping with a custom observed ever since a man seeking to avenge the Serbian despot had killed Sultan Murad in audience, the envoys were led into the presence held by the arms, made a show of kissing the sultan's hand, and were walked backwards to the opposite wall without ever turning their backs on him. Busbecq's words did not please the sultan; demands breathing independence and dignity weighed heavily on a ruler who held his wish to be law. Süleyman merely said, in a tetchy voice, "Güzel, güzel", well, well, and the envoys were sent back to their lodgings.

The crowd in the audience hall impressed Busbecq even more than the sultan. In the hall were officers of high rank, the troopers of the sultan's household cavalry, the sipahis, ghurebas and ulufecis, and thousands of janissaries. He explains at length that in this great assembly there was not a man who owed his place to anything but his valour and merit, that posts were given according to ability alone, that most of those in the highest offices were the sons of shepherds or herdsmen and gloried in it rather than being ashamed; then he adds, bitterly, that in his own country birth is everything. He calls the sea of white silk turbans and the robes glittering with gold, silver, silk and velvet the most beautiful spectacle he ever saw. The silence and order of the crowd astonish him. Several thousand janissaries drawn up in a separate line stand so motionless that, seen from a little distance, he cannot for some time make out whether they are men or statues; when he is prompted to salute them, all their heads bow at the same moment.

The Persian Envoy and the Six-Month Truce

Shah Tahmasp's envoy arrived on 10 May. Busbecq lists the presents he brought: carpets from famous looms, "Babylonian" tents lined with coloured hangings, embroidered trappings, jewelled scimitars from Damascus, finely made shields, and, valued above all the rest, a copy of the Qur'an. Peace was granted to the Persians at once; in Busbecq's view one purpose of this was to increase the pressure on the Habsburg envoys, who were thought the more troublesome party. To prove the reality of the peace, the Shah's representative was shown extraordinary honours. The second vizier, Ali Pasha, gave the Persian envoy a banquet in his garden across the river; Busbecq watched this dinner from his own lodgings. The way a hundred pages passed the dishes from hand to hand from the kitchen to the table, bringing more than a hundred dishes without the slightest confusion, made him think of the care the Turks gave to order even in trifles. He also praises the Dalmatian-born Ali Pasha as a courteous man with a kind heart.

Once peace had been made with the Persians, it became impossible for the Habsburg embassy to extract any decent terms. All that could be obtained was a six-month truce to allow time for the sultan's letter to reach Vienna and for the answer to come back. Busbecq had come as resident ambassador, but since no peace had yet been concluded the pashas decided that he should return to his master with the sultan's letter. At his farewell audience two heavy embroidered robes reaching to the ankles were thrown over his shoulders, and his suite too were given silk garments. Marching in this procession, Busbecq compares himself to an actor playing Agamemnon in an ancient tragedy. He received the letter wrapped in cloth of gold, and the gentlemen of his suite were also admitted to pay their respects to the sultan. The farewell breakfast given in the council chamber to the envoys of friendly states was not given this time, because peace had not yet been made.

A Portrait of Süleyman

At the close of the Amasya section Busbecq, thinking Michault will be curious, describes Süleyman. The sultan's years are beginning to tell on him, but his bearing befits the lord of so vast an empire. From his youth he has been careful and temperate; he has not drunk wine and has kept his conduct blameless. Even those most ill-disposed towards him can find no fault but his excessive devotion to his wife and the haste with which, under her influence, he had Mustafa put to death. He is strict in his religion and as eager to spread his faith as to extend his empire. He is approaching sixty and seems in good health, but his complexion suggests some hidden malady; there is said to be an incurable ulcer on his thigh. Busbecq writes that the sultan put rouge on his face to look healthy to foreign envoys, and that he himself noticed the signs of this in his face at the farewell audience, so changed was it from the first meeting.

The embassy left Amasya on 2 June. The Persian envoy set out the same day, since there was only one road into and out of the city; the road soon forked, the Persians turning east and the Habsburg embassy west. Leaving the city they saw everywhere across the broad plains the Turkish camps crowded with tents. The June heat was too much for Busbecq; he fell ill with an intermittent fever accompanied by headache and catarrh, and was not rid of it until he reached Istanbul on 24 June. He recovered with the warm baths prescribed by his physician Quacquelben and the cold water the doctor poured over him after the bath.

The Princes of Amasya in the Letters

Busbecq's connection with Amasya does not end with these two months. The story of the city's last two princely governors, Mustafa and Bayezid, also takes up a large place in his letters. In the first letter he tells how Mustafa, summoned by his father, left "Amasia, the seat of his government" for the army camp and was strangled there. Forster and Daniell note that the event took place not at Amasya but in the camp near Ereğli in Konya, and point out that nothing in Busbecq's text places it at Amasya.

In the third letter he writes that Süleyman, to keep Selim and Bayezid apart, sent Bayezid from Kütahya to Amasya and Selim from Manisa to Konya. He also reports Bayezid's protest: he had been given Amasya, a town of evil omen "still reeking with his brother's blood", and did not wish to have the miserable end of his kinsfolk before his eyes every day. Busbecq finds this complaint understandable, remarking that the Turks are in the habit of forecasting important matters from trifling signs, but adds that the sultan saw the real reason in Amasya being too far from the capital. In the same letter he relates how Bayezid, after his defeat at Konya, withdrew to Amasya, how on the day of the feast, as soon as the ceremonies were over, he fled from there towards Persia, taking with him everyone able to bear arms, how he left his newborn son with the child's mother in Amasya, and how the sultan had this child taken to Bursa.

Seven Years in Istanbul

Busbecq returned to Vienna in July 1555 and waited for Ferdinand, who was at Augsburg. As to the date of his first letter, Forster and Daniell show that the date printed in the Latin editions as 1 September 1554 must, on the internal evidence, be 1 September 1555. On 14 November 1555 he set out once more and reached Istanbul at the beginning of 1556. This time he stayed for about seven years as resident ambassador. Most of these years were spent in the Elçi Hanı, in effect under guard. His colleagues Verancsics and Zay left after a while, and Busbecq carried on the negotiations alone. During an outbreak of plague he withdrew to Büyükada (Prinkipo), and his physician Quacquelben died in this epidemic. In his letters he followed Rüstem Pasha's return to the grand vizierate, the intrigues of the court, the war between Bayezid and Selim, and Bayezid's execution in Persia.

At last, in 1562, he secured the preliminaries of an eight-year peace that was, in the words of the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, "halfway acceptable". At the end of August 1562 he left Istanbul together with the Ottoman envoy İbrahim Bey, and in November he brought him to Frankfurt, to the assembly at which Ferdinand had his son Maximilian declared his successor. The treaty was ratified there. As a reward Busbecq was given the title of privy councillor.

The Turkish Letters

Busbecq's four long Latin letters on the Ottoman world were addressed to his friend Nicolas Michault, whom he had come to know in Venice and with whom he had studied in Italy. According to Forster and Daniell, Busbecq did not write them with a view to publication, nor was it he who decided to publish them. Forster and Daniell say the first edition contained only the first letter; the TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi states that it contained two letters. The book was printed in 1581 at Antwerp by Christophe Plantin under the title Itinera Constantinopolitanum et Amasianum, together with a proposal on how war should be waged against the Turks. All four letters were published in Paris in 1589 and were soon reprinted in many European cities. More than twenty Latin editions appeared, and translations were published in German (1664), English (1694 and 1744) and French (1748). The annotated English translation by Charles Thornton Forster and F. H. Blackburne Daniell was published in London in 1881.

The first Turkish translation was made from English by Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın; it was first printed in part in the journal Fikir Hareketleri and then, in 1939, as a book under the title Türk Mektupları. It was followed by Osman Yüksel Serdengeçti's Kanunî Devrinde Bir Sefirin Hâtıratı (1953) and Aysel Kurutluoğlu's Türkiye'yi Böyle Gördüm. Zeki Arıkan draws attention to the way the measured, humanist voice of the letters gives way, in the same author's proposal for war against the Turks, to an open call to arms. Busbecq, who in his letters praises the discipline and simple life of the Turkish soldier and an order founded on merit, discusses in his proposal how Europe should unite against this power.

Arıkan also stresses that Busbecq's embassy was a turning point in cultural relations. The envoy's suite included the painter Melchior Lorck, who drew two portraits of Süleyman and a great panorama of Istanbul, and Dernschwam, whose travel diary preserves the sixteenth-century appearance of Amasya.

Tulips, Lilacs and Manuscripts

Busbecq's fame in Europe does not rest on his letters alone. The Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie writes that European horticulture owes him the introduction of the lilac and the tulip, but rejects the widespread belief that the horse chestnut and the lily also reached Europe through him; the first seeds of the horse chestnut were sent in 1576 to the botanist Clusius in Vienna by his successor David Ungnad. The TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi states that it was Busbecq who had tulip bulbs taken to Holland and grown there. Forster and Daniell, for their part, relate that after his return to Vienna Busbecq received tulip bulbs and other rare plants from Istanbul, that his countryman Clusius benefited from them, and that the French writer Bernardin de Saint-Pierre proposed renaming the lilac "Busbequia".

The manuscripts he gathered in Istanbul are his most lasting gift. In his fourth letter he writes that he had sent close to two hundred and forty Greek books by sea to Venice, bound for the imperial library. The only copy he left behind in Istanbul was a very old manuscript of Dioscorides, written throughout in uncials and illustrated with drawings of plants; it belonged to a Jew, the son of Süleyman's physician Hamon, and the hundred ducats asked for it suited, in Busbecq's words, the imperial purse but not his own. Forster and Daniell note that this manuscript was later bought by the emperor and is preserved in Vienna. The Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, however, counts the Dioscorides among the two hundred and forty manuscripts Busbecq presented. Forster and Daniell tell how, wishing to see a giraffe, he had the bones of one buried in Istanbul dug up, how on his second journey he took a draughtsman with him to sketch plants and animals, and how he sent his physician to Lemnos to investigate Lemnian earth and an apothecary to the lake of İzmit to gather plants for his botanist friend Mattioli. He is also recorded as having brought a lion and an ichneumon for the imperial collections. Besides the inscription he had copied in Ankara, he sent other inscriptions to Clusius, Justus Lipsius and Jan Gruter.

The Vienna and France Years

After his return from Istanbul Busbecq dreamed of a quiet life among books and gardens, but the Habsburg court would not let him go. In September 1563, at Maximilian's coronation as King of Hungary at Pressburg, he was raised to knighthood. He was entrusted with the education and household of Maximilian's sons, the Archdukes Matthias, Maximilian, Albert and Wenceslaus. For the years that follow, the sources part ways. The Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie writes that in 1570 he escorted the archdukes and the Archduchess Anna, who was to marry Philip II, to Madrid. Forster and Daniell, on the other hand, relate that in the same year, when Maximilian's daughter Elisabeth married King Charles IX of France, he went to France at the head of her household and soon returned to Vienna. The TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi likewise records that Busbecq went to France with Elisabeth.

When Charles IX died in 1574 the widowed queen returned to Vienna, and Busbecq went to Paris to manage the revenues of her dower in France. Roughly the last fifteen years of his life were spent in France. His letters to the Emperor Rudolf II, covering the years 1582-1585, describe France on the eve of the wars of the League. The nature of this post is disputed. Some biographers regard him as Rudolf's ambassador in Paris; the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, by contrast, argues that he was merely an agent managing the widowed queen's affairs and that the letters have no diplomatic character. Forster and Daniell think that, as a Fleming and thus a subject of the King of Spain, he worked as an ambassador without the title.

His Death

Queen Elisabeth died at the beginning of 1592, and in the same year Busbecq obtained leave to depart from France. He was seventy years old and wished to return to Bousbecque, which he had not seen for nearly forty years, to the château whose life interest he had bought from his nephew. While passing through Normandy and spending the night at the village of Cailly near Rouen, he was set upon by an armed band claiming to fight for the Catholic League, who seized his baggage and carried him off. They released him the next morning, but the shock was too much for the old man and he fell into a fever. He was taken to the château of Maillot near Rouen and died there. The date of his death is given as 28 October 1592 in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie and in Forster and Daniell, and as 28 November 1592 in the TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. His body was buried in the church of Saint-Germain; his heart, in accordance with his wish, was laid in the family vault at Bousbecque. His friend Justus Lipsius, in the Latin epitaph he wrote for him, remembers Busbecq as a man tried both at the court of the emperors and at the court of the "tyrant of Asia", who in every office showed himself a Nestor in tongue and mind.

Chronology

1522: Born at Comines.

1540: Legitimated by a patent of Charles V (April according to the ADB, 24 November according to Forster and Daniell).

1554: Attends the wedding of Philip and Mary Tudor on 25 July; summoned to the Istanbul embassy on 3 November; leaves Vienna on 23 November.

1555: Reaches Istanbul on 20 January; sets out for Amasya on 9 March; reaches Amasya on 7 April; witnesses the arrival of the Persian envoy on 10 May; leaves Amasya on 2 June with a six-month truce; returns to Istanbul on 24 June; is in Vienna in July; writes his first letter on 1 September; sets out again for Istanbul on 14 November.

1556-1562: Resides in Istanbul as ambassador.

1562: Secures the preliminaries of an eight-year peace; leaves Istanbul at the end of August; the treaty is ratified at Frankfurt in November.

1563: Knighted at Pressburg.

1570: Takes part in the marriage journeys of the Habsburg dynasty.

1574: Goes to France to manage the affairs of the widowed queen after the death of Charles IX.

1581: His first letter is printed at Antwerp under the title Itinera Constantinopolitanum et Amasianum.

1589: All four letters are published in Paris.

1592: Dies at the château of Maillot near Rouen (28 October; 28 November according to the TDV).

1881: The annotated English translation by Forster and Daniell is published.

1939: Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın's translation is published as Türk Mektupları.

Bibliography

The following sources were used in this article:

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